Persian forces under Cambyses II defeated Pharaoh Psamtik III near Pelusium, opening the way for the Achaemenid takeover and the start of Egypt’s first period as an Achaemenid-ruled satrapy (Dynasty 27).
After Pelusium, Persian forces moved against Memphis; its fall ended the last major organized resistance and consolidated Achaemenid control over Egypt’s core political center.
With Egypt incorporated into the empire, the Achaemenids governed through a satrapal administration; Aryandes is identified as the first satrap in the early Persian period in Egypt.
Cambyses II presented himself in Egyptian royal form and was recognized as pharaoh within the framework of Dynasty 27, signaling an Achaemenid strategy of ruling through local kingship forms alongside imperial administration.
During the imperial succession crisis after Cambyses’ death, Petubastis III emerged as a rebel pharaoh (c. 522–520 BCE), illustrating the fragility of early Achaemenid control in Egypt.
The autobiography of Udjahorresnet (an Egyptian official who served under Amasis II, Psamtik III, Cambyses, and Darius) records his role in mediating between Persian kings and Egyptian religious institutions; the statue text is commonly dated to Year 3 of Darius I (c. 519 BCE).
Darius I strengthened imperial governance in Egypt, while also pursuing policies aimed at securing cooperation of Egyptian elites and temples; later summaries emphasize comparatively lighter taxation and economic works under Darius.
Stelae of Darius I commemorate the completion of a canal linking the Nile with the Red Sea, a major imperial infrastructure work intended to facilitate transport and commerce within the empire.
Aryandes was removed from office by Darius I around 496 BCE, showing continued imperial intervention in Egypt’s satrapal leadership and concern over the power of provincial governors.
On Darius I’s death (486 BCE), a revolt broke out in the Delta; accounts emphasize that Xerxes I treated Egypt as a conquered province afterward, tightening imperial control.
Xerxes’ brother Achaemenes became satrap of Egypt sometime between 486 and 484 BCE, and is associated with quelling the revolt by about 484 BCE, after which policies are described as more repressive.
In 460 BCE, Inaros II led a large-scale rebellion in the Nile Delta against Persian rule and gained military backing from Athens, turning Egypt into a major theater of Achaemenid–Greek conflict.
During the revolt, Inaros’ forces defeated the Persian army; Achaemenes, the satrap of Egypt, was killed, a serious blow to Achaemenid authority in the province.
After prolonged fighting (including the siege of Persian-held positions), Achaemenid forces regained control; Inaros was captured and executed in 454 BCE, restoring Persian dominance over most of the Delta.
Late in the 5th century BCE, Amyrtaeus drove Persians from Memphis and, following the death of Darius II, proclaimed himself pharaoh—ending the first Achaemenid period of rule in Egypt and beginning the short 28th Dynasty.
Achaemenid conquest and rule in Egypt (525–404 BCE)
