The Daoguang Emperor appointed Lin Zexu as imperial commissioner to Guangdong to halt the illegal opium trade at Canton (Guangzhou), a crackdown that sharply escalated tensions with British merchants and officials.
After compelling foreign merchants to surrender their stock, Lin Zexu began publicly destroying a massive cache of confiscated opium at Humen (near the Pearl River estuary), a catalytic act that helped trigger open conflict.
After drunken British sailors killed a Chinese villager, British authorities refused to surrender the accused to Qing jurisdiction, deepening the legal-sovereignty dispute that became a key grievance as the crisis turned into war.
British warships engaged Qing forces near the Humen (Bogue) strait in the First Battle of Chuenpi, one of the earliest clear military clashes of the conflict.
A major British expeditionary force arrived to compel Qing concessions, initiating a wider maritime campaign that expanded the war beyond the immediate Pearl River trade dispute.
British forces seized Zhoushan (Chusan), providing a strategic foothold on China’s coast and demonstrating that Britain could pressure the Qing far from Canton.
British forces captured key forts at the Humen strait during the Second Battle of Chuenpi, strengthening Britain’s ability to operate in the Pearl River delta and press for a settlement.
British representative Charles Elliot and Qing commissioner Qishan issued the Convention of Chuenpi, proposing terms including territorial and financial arrangements; both governments rejected it, prolonging the war.
In the Battle of the Bogue, British forces captured several key forts guarding the Humen strait, further undermining Qing coastal defenses and enabling renewed pressure on Canton.
Britain captured fortifications at Amoy (Xiamen), reflecting a strategy of seizing coastal points to compel Qing concessions by threatening commerce and key waterways.
British victory at Chinhai (Zhenhai) opened access to Ningbo, which Britain then occupied, increasing pressure on the Qing by holding important coastal cities.
Qing forces attempted to recapture Ningbo from a small British garrison but were repulsed, confirming Britain’s ability to hold captured positions despite Qing counterattacks.
British forces defeated Qing defenses at Wusong, controlling the river entrance and clearing the approach to Shanghai, which was taken shortly thereafter.
British troops captured Zhenjiang (Chinkiang) at a key Yangtze River junction, a decisive blow that exposed Nanjing and helped force the Qing to negotiate peace.
Britain and Qing China signed the Treaty of Nanjing, ending the First Opium War. Key terms included an indemnity, cession of Hong Kong, and opening of five ports to British trade—foundational provisions of the later “treaty port” system.
The exchange of ratifications brought the Treaty of Nanjing formally into effect, operationalizing its provisions and setting the stage for detailed trade rules and legal privileges negotiated afterward.
The Treaty of the Bogue (a supplementary agreement) clarified and expanded the Treaty of Nanjing’s execution, including extraterritoriality for British subjects and a most-favoured-nation clause that extended future concessions to Britain.
First Opium War and the Treaty of Nanjing (1839–1842)
