After the Tongzhi Emperor died without an heir, the child Zaitian was chosen as successor and formally enthroned, adopting the reign title Guangxu. Real power remained with the regent empress dowagers (especially Cixi).
The death of Empress Dowager Ci'an removed a co-regent at court, further consolidating Empress Dowager Cixi's influence during Guangxu’s minority.
Guangxu’s imperial wedding (Empress Jingfen/Longyu) followed court custom that the emperor would begin personal rule; formal transfer of governing authority was proclaimed in connection with these ceremonies, though Cixi’s influence persisted.
Qing defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War culminated in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, forcing major territorial concessions and indemnities and helping drive urgent reform pressures during Guangxu’s reign.
Guangxu launched the Hundred Days’ Reform by issuing the first major reform decree, initiating a rapid series of edicts aimed at modernizing governance, education, and the military.
As part of the reform program, Guangxu authorized creation of the Imperial University of Peking (later Peking University), a landmark in late-Qing educational modernization efforts.
Conservative forces under Empress Dowager Cixi moved against the reformers; Guangxu was detained and the reform drive was halted, marking a decisive reversal of the emperor’s bid to rule independently.
During the Boxer crisis, foreign legations in Beijing were besieged, accelerating Qing legitimacy loss and setting the stage for harsh settlement terms imposed on the court.
An international relief force entered Beijing and ended the 55-day siege, leading to intensified foreign pressure on the Qing court and major post-crisis penalties.
The Qing government signed the Boxer Protocol, committing to large indemnities and other concessions—deepening fiscal strain and foreign oversight during the final years of Guangxu’s reign.
Late-Qing reforms culminated in the formal abolition of the imperial examination system, replacing a centuries-old recruitment mechanism with new-school pathways and reshaping elite formation.
Guangxu died while still under effective house arrest following the 1898 coup; his death occurred one day before Empress Dowager Cixi’s, triggering succession arrangements for the child Puyi.
Guangxu Emperor's Reign (1875–1908)
