Ethiopia and Italy signed the Treaty of Wichale (Ucciali). A key clause (Article XVII) differed between the Amharic and Italian texts, later underpinning Italy’s claim of a protectorate and Ethiopia’s rejection of that claim.
After repudiating Italy’s protectorate claim earlier, Emperor Menelik II officially denounced the entire Treaty of Wichale, escalating tensions that soon moved from diplomacy to armed conflict.
Dejazmach Bahta Hagos initiated an uprising against Italian rule in Akkele Guzay, helping trigger a chain of events that widened the confrontation between Italy and Ethiopian forces and allies in the region.
Italian forces under Major Pietro Toselli defeated the rebels at Halai, ending Bahta Hagos’s revolt and hardening Italian expectations of military solutions—an important prelude to the broader war.
Italian colonial forces defeated Ras Mengesha Yohannes’s invading army at Coatit, marking the opening major engagement of the First Italo-Ethiopian War and enabling deeper Italian operations into Tigray.
Following Coatit, Italian forces again defeated Ras Mengesha Yohannes at Senafe, further disrupting Tigrayan resistance and clearing the way for Italian advances into key northern towns.
As Italian forces pushed into Tigray, they occupied Adwa—an occupation that foreshadowed the later decisive confrontation fought near the town in 1896.
Italian and allied colonial troops defeated a Tigrayan rearguard at Debra Ailà, one of the last Italian battlefield successes before Menelik II’s full mobilization shifted momentum toward Ethiopia.
Ethiopian forces under Ras Makonnen (with other commanders) overwhelmed Major Pietro Toselli’s position at Amba Alagi, forcing Italian withdrawals toward more defensible positions and setting up the winter campaign.
Ethiopian forces besieged the Italian garrison at Mekelle; after cutting off water and sustained pressure, the Italians surrendered and were allowed to withdraw—an episode that further concentrated forces for the coming showdown.
With political pressure mounting in Rome, Italy covertly designated Antonio Baldissera to replace Governor/commander Oreste Baratieri in Eritrea—an internal shift that coincided with intensifying operational decisions before Adwa.
Ethiopian forces under Emperor Menelik II defeated the Italian army near Adwa. The battle became the war’s turning point, compelling Italy to abandon its protectorate project and leading to formal recognition of Ethiopian independence.
Italy and Ethiopia concluded the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which abrogated the Treaty of Wichale and ended the war on terms that included Italy’s recognition of Ethiopia’s sovereign independence.
First Italo-Ethiopian War and the Battle of Adwa (1895-1896)
