President F.W. de Klerk’s government freed Nelson Mandela and lifted bans on the ANC and other liberation movements. These steps made legal political negotiations possible after decades of repression. The change set the stage for direct talks about ending apartheid.
The ANC and the South African government met at Groote Schuur and issued a joint statement known as the Groote Schuur Minute. It identified obstacles to negotiations, including political prisoners and the climate for free political activity. The agreement created working channels for further talks.
At Pretoria, the government and ANC reaffirmed Groote Schuur and agreed on steps related to political prisoners, exiles, and laws affecting political activity. The ANC also announced the suspension of armed actions in the context of progress toward a negotiated settlement. This helped move talks from broad intent toward practical measures.
The parties confirmed an agreement at D.F. Malan Airport in Cape Town that became known as the DF Malan Accord. It aimed to reduce barriers to multi-party negotiations by tightening commitments around armed activity and intimidation. This was part of building minimum trust needed for broader talks.
Major political and civil society groups signed the National Peace Accord to address escalating political violence. It set codes of conduct for parties and security forces and created peace committees and monitoring mechanisms. The accord did not solve constitutional questions, but it helped manage conflict during negotiations.
The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) held its first plenary session at the World Trade Centre near Johannesburg. Parties agreed to pursue a non-racial democratic order and formed working groups to tackle key issues like constitution-making and interim arrangements. Some major actors, including the IFP, initially stayed away, showing how fragile consensus remained.
De Klerk called a whites-only referendum to seek support for continuing reforms and negotiations. The result strengthened his political authority within the white electorate to keep negotiating an end to apartheid. This mattered because right-wing opposition threatened to block or destabilize the process.
CODESA’s second plenary session met to review progress, but major disagreements persisted over the shape of the new state. Key disputes included how power would be shared and protected during transition and how much authority regions would have. The deadlock signaled that a new approach would be needed to reach a final deal.
Armed attackers killed residents in Boipatong, and the massacre intensified mistrust in the negotiation process. The ANC leadership suspended negotiations soon afterward, accusing the state of failing to prevent political violence. The shock raised the stakes for agreements on security and impartial policing.
During a mass protest in the Ciskei homeland, security forces shot and killed demonstrators at Bisho. The event highlighted how violence in and around the “homeland” system could derail national negotiations. It increased urgency for credible transitional arrangements and restraint by security forces.
The ANC and National Party government signed a Record of Understanding to break the impasse after months of crisis and violence. It addressed steps to stabilize the situation and move negotiations forward again, even though not all parties agreed with the bilateral path. This shift helped clear the way for a new, broader negotiating forum.
After preparatory meetings, parties launched the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum (MPNF) to resume constitutional negotiations in a new format. It broadened participation compared with CODESA and worked through unresolved issues toward a transitional constitution. The forum became the main engine that finalized the rules for the 1994 transition.
Chris Hani, a prominent leader in the liberation movement and the South African Communist Party, was assassinated by right-wing extremists. The killing sparked nationwide anger and fears of wider conflict. Political leaders used the crisis to push harder for a clear election path and a negotiated settlement.
The Transitional Executive Council (TEC) held its first sitting as a multi-party body designed to help ensure a level playing field before the election. It could monitor and influence key areas such as security and administration during the run-up to the vote. The TEC marked a practical shift from negotiation alone to shared transitional governance.
South Africa’s Interim Constitution (Act 200 of 1993) was assented to, creating the legal basis for the transition and the first non-racial national election. It outlined a temporary constitutional order and required the new Parliament to act as a constituent assembly to draft a final constitution. This converted negotiated agreements into binding law.
In Bophuthatswana, a confrontation involving the homeland government and armed right-wing groups escalated into a major crisis. The breakdown made clear that parts of the homeland system could not credibly run elections under their existing leadership. The crisis accelerated re-incorporation and strengthened the push for nationwide election control under transitional structures.
South Africans voted in the first national election in which all races could participate. The election was the central outcome of the negotiation process, translating political compromise into a legitimate new government. It is commemorated as Freedom Day and is widely treated as the formal end of apartheid-era rule.
Nelson Mandela was sworn in at the Union Buildings in Pretoria, becoming South Africa’s first democratically elected president. The inauguration marked the transition from apartheid government to a Government of National Unity under the interim constitutional order. It provided a clear endpoint to the 1990–1994 negotiation phase and a starting point for building new democratic institutions.
Negotiations to End Apartheid and the 1994 Transition (1990–1994)