In late 220, Cao Pi forced the last Eastern Han emperor to abdicate and declared himself emperor of Wei. This act formally ended the Han dynasty and created the first of the three rival states. It set the pattern for a divided China ruled by competing courts.
From 221 to 222, Shu attacked Wu in a major campaign often called the Battle of Xiaoting (or Yiling). Wu forces under Lu Xun defeated Shu, forcing Liu Bei to retreat. The outcome blocked Shu’s expansion eastward and pushed Shu and Wu toward a more stable alliance against Wei.
In 228, Shu’s chief minister Zhuge Liang began a major offensive against Wei, aiming to regain territory and pressure the stronger northern state. Early successes included defections in the northwest, but the campaign later stalled. These expeditions became a central military strategy for Shu, shaping its resources and leadership.
In 228, Eastern Wu won a major victory over Wei at Shiting after luring Wei commander Cao Xiu into a trap. The battle showed Wu’s ability to counter Wei offensives and helped stabilize Wu’s borders. It also reinforced the idea that none of the three states could easily destroy the others quickly.
In 234, Shu and Wei fought at Wuzhang Plains during Zhuge Liang’s final Northern Expedition. The campaign ended without a decisive victory, and Zhuge Liang died during the operation. His death weakened Shu’s long-term ability to sustain large offensives against Wei.
On 5 February 249, Wei general Sima Yi carried out a coup in Luoyang, removing the regent Cao Shuang and taking control of the government. After this, the Sima family increasingly dominated Wei politics while Wei emperors became less powerful. This shift set the stage for Wei’s eventual replacement by a new dynasty.
On 2 June 260, Wei’s emperor Cao Mao attempted to overthrow the regent Sima Zhao but was killed during the failed effort. The event showed how far real power had shifted away from the imperial family. It also made the Sima takeover of the throne more likely and more openly discussed.
In 263, Wei launched a coordinated invasion of Shu and forced Shu’s ruler Liu Shan to surrender. Shu’s fall removed one of the three kingdoms and dramatically changed the balance of power. From this point, the struggle moved toward a final contest between the Sima-led Wei/Jin regime and Eastern Wu.
In early 266, Sima Yan took the throne and founded the Jin dynasty, ending the state of Wei. This was the political climax of the Sima family’s rise, begun decades earlier through control of Wei’s government. Jin then focused on eliminating the last remaining rival, Eastern Wu.
In late 279 to 280, Jin launched a large multi-front invasion of Eastern Wu. Wu’s last emperor, Sun Hao, surrendered on 1 May 280, ending Wu and bringing China under a single dynasty again. This outcome closed the Three Kingdoms period and began a new phase of imperial rule under Jin.
Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE)