In late April 1859, unrest in Tuscany pushed Grand Duke Leopold II to leave Florence. Local leaders formed a provisional government, creating an opening for pro-unification politicians to steer Tuscany toward Piedmont-Sardinia rather than a restored Habsburg ruler.
By June 1859, uprisings spread through Parma, Modena, and the Papal Legations (including Romagna). These revolts removed or weakened the authority of the duchies and the papal administration in the north, setting up a political question: who would govern these territories next?
Piedmont-Sardinia sent Luigi Carlo Farini to oversee the former duchies as its influence expanded. His appointment helped turn local revolts into a coordinated transition toward union with Piedmont, rather than a return of the deposed dukes.
France and Austria agreed to stop the war in July 1859, with terms that included restoring the deposed rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma. This clashed with realities on the ground, where provisional governments were already operating and many local leaders favored union with Piedmont-Sardinia.
The Treaty of Zürich formalized the Villafranca settlement and ended the 1859 war. It repeated ideas like an Italian confederation under the Pope and left room for restoring the central Italian rulers—provisions that soon became impractical as annexation plans advanced.
In late 1859, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna were brought together under a shared administration often called the United Provinces of Central Italy. This consolidation made it easier to organize a single political path toward Piedmont-Sardinia, including coordinating a plebiscite.
In January 1860, Camillo Benso di Cavour returned as Piedmont-Sardinia’s prime minister. He backed new votes in the central states to demonstrate popular support for union, strengthening Piedmont’s position in negotiations with France and other powers.
On 11–12 March 1860, plebiscites were held in territories often grouped as Emilia (including the former duchies of Parma and Modena) and in the Romagna (former Papal Legations). The results strongly favored annexation, giving a legal-political basis for ending the provisional regimes.
Tuscany held its own plebiscite on 11–12 March 1860. The vote returned a large majority for joining the constitutional monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II, marking a decisive break with Habsburg-Lorraine rule and the earlier idea of restoration.
After the March vote, the former duchies and the Romagna were formally annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia. This transformed a wartime takeover and provisional administration into recognized state territory, moving unification from diplomacy into governance.
Following the plebiscite, Tuscany’s annexation was proclaimed by its high court and then formalized by an act signed days later. This ended the Tuscan provisional government as a separate authority and placed Tuscany under the Sardinian crown.
On 24 March 1860, France and Sardinia signed the Treaty of Turin, providing for the cession of Nice and Savoy to France after local consent. The deal helped secure Napoleon III’s acceptance of Piedmont-Sardinia’s central Italian annexations, reducing the risk of foreign reversal.
By early 1861, the annexed central Italian territories were being integrated into Piedmont-Sardinia’s institutions, and their representatives were part of the political process leading to national unification. These plebiscites and annexations became a major building block for proclaiming the Kingdom of Italy in March 1861.
Plebiscites and Annexation of the Central Italian Duchies (1859–1860)