In mid-1853, Russian forces entered the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Ottoman-controlled territories on Russia’s southwestern border. The move increased tensions over influence in the weakening Ottoman Empire and pushed European diplomacy toward crisis. This occupation helped set the stage for open war later in 1853.
After negotiations failed, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in early October 1853. Fighting soon spread across multiple fronts, including along the Danube and in the Caucasus. What began as a Russo-Ottoman conflict would soon draw in other great powers.
At Oltenița in Wallachia, Ottoman forces fought a Russian attack and held their fortified position. The battle is often described as the first engagement of the Crimean War. It showed that the war would not be decided quickly by a single early blow.
A Russian naval squadron attacked Ottoman ships anchored at Sinop and decisively defeated them. The battle highlighted Russia’s effective use of explosive shells against wooden warships. International reaction to Sinop helped accelerate Britain and France’s decision to enter the conflict.
Britain and France formally entered the war by declaring war on Russia in late March 1854. Their goal was to protect the Ottoman Empire and prevent Russia from expanding its influence. This transformed the conflict into a major European war.
In September 1854, British and French-led forces landed on the Crimean Peninsula to strike Russia’s Black Sea base at Sevastopol. The landing opened the most famous theater of the war. It shifted the fighting from border regions to a direct assault on a key Russian fortress-port.
Allied forces met the Russian army at the Alma River and won, clearing a path toward Sevastopol. Although the victory did not immediately end the campaign, it gave the Allies momentum. Russia’s field army withdrew, and the conflict moved toward a siege.
The Allies began major siege operations against Sevastopol, Russia’s main Black Sea naval base. The siege became the central struggle of the war and lasted through a brutal winter. Both sides learned that modern fortifications and firepower could make wars longer and more costly.
Russian forces attacked near Balaclava, a key Allied supply port for the siege lines. During the battle, a misunderstood order led to the British “Charge of the Light Brigade,” a costly cavalry attack that became famous in later reporting and memory. The fighting showed how supply lines and command decisions could shape the siege.
Russia launched a major attack near Inkerman in foggy conditions, hoping to break the Allied position and disrupt the siege. British and French troops ultimately repelled the assault. After Inkerman, the campaign settled even more firmly into a long siege rather than open-field battles.
Russian forces attacked the port town of Eupatoria, which was held by Ottoman-led troops and supported by Allied naval power. The Russian assault failed, keeping the Allies’ foothold on the peninsula secure. This reduced Russia’s options for threatening Allied supply and landing points while Sevastopol remained under siege.
Tsar Nicholas I died in early 1855 during the war, and his son Alexander II succeeded him. The leadership change mattered because Russia was facing military strain and international pressure. The war’s costs and setbacks helped shape the new tsar’s willingness to consider ending the conflict.
In August 1855, Russia attempted another major effort near the Chernaya River to relieve pressure on Sevastopol. Allied forces defeated the attack, and the siege continued. The loss weakened Russia’s ability to change the outcome on the ground before final assaults on Sevastopol’s defenses.
French troops captured the Malakhov (Malakoff), a vital defensive position, during major assaults in early September 1855. Shortly afterward, Russian forces evacuated Sevastopol, ending the long siege. The loss of this main naval base was a turning point that pushed the war rapidly toward a negotiated end.
The Treaty of Paris formally ended the war in March 1856. Among other terms, it guaranteed the Ottoman Empire’s independence and neutralized the Black Sea, limiting Russia’s ability to base warships there. The settlement marked a clear diplomatic defeat for Russia and closed the conflict with a new European balance in the region.
Crimean War (1853-1856)