In 1727, Muhammad bin Saud became the ruler of Diriyah in central Arabia (Najd). His rule is widely treated as the starting point for the political project that later became known as the First Saudi State. Diriyah’s location on trade and pilgrimage routes made it a practical base for expanding influence beyond a single oasis town.
In 1744, Muhammad bin Saud formed an alliance with the religious reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Diriyah. The pact linked political authority with a reform program focused on stricter monotheism and religious practice. This partnership provided a shared basis for governance and helped the Diriyah leadership mobilize supporters for expansion.
From the mid-1740s, forces based in Diriyah fought a long struggle against Riyadh, a nearby rival center. The conflict mattered because control of Riyadh helped consolidate power in the al-‘Arid region of Najd and reduced the threat from a major neighbor. The drawn-out fighting also showed that expansion was gradual and contested, not immediate.
Muhammad bin Saud died in 1765, and his son Abdulaziz bin Muhammad became leader. Under Abdulaziz, the state continued to expand while also developing a style of rule that combined tribal politics, local administration, and religious authority. This succession helped stabilize leadership during a period of ongoing warfare and consolidation.
In 1773, Diriyah’s forces entered Riyadh after its ruler, Dahham ibn Dawwas, fled. Bringing Riyadh under control reduced a long-standing military threat and strengthened the state’s position in central Arabia. This victory helped make Diriyah the dominant political power across much of Najd.
In 1787, Saud (son of Abdulaziz) was publicly designated as heir, and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab called on people to give allegiance to him. This moment mattered because it clarified succession at a time of expansion and reinforced the tight link between political leadership and the reform movement’s religious authority. It also marked one of the last major political interventions by ibn Abd al-Wahhab.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab died in 1792 in Diriyah. His death did not end the movement he helped build; instead, his followers and descendants continued to play influential religious roles. By this point, the Diriyah state had already established itself across much of central Arabia.
On April 21, 1802, forces linked to the Emirate of Diriyah attacked Karbala in Ottoman Iraq and targeted the shrine of Husayn ibn Ali. The event escalated hostility with Ottoman authorities and deepened sectarian tensions, since Karbala was a major Shia religious center. It also helped trigger stronger efforts to defeat the Diriyah state militarily.
In 1803, Saud bin Abdulaziz succeeded as ruler, and the Emirate of Diriyah continued major expansion beyond Najd. Control over key regions, including parts of the Hijaz (home to Islam’s holy cities), increased the state’s prestige and strategic leverage. At the same time, these gains directly challenged Ottoman claims to authority in western Arabia.
In October 1811, Ottoman forces led by Egypt’s Muhammad Ali Pasha (through his son Tusun) began a major campaign against the Emirate of Diriyah, starting with the capture of Yanbu on the Red Sea. The campaign aimed to restore Ottoman control in the Hijaz and respond to the loss of the holy cities. This marked the start of the war that would eventually destroy the First Saudi State.
On January 22, 1813, Ottoman-Egyptian forces recaptured Mecca, reversing one of the First Saudi State’s most important gains. Losing Mecca weakened the state’s legitimacy and reduced its ability to project power in western Arabia. The fighting, however, continued as the Ottoman-Egyptian campaign pushed inland toward Najd.
In 1818, Ibrahim Pasha led a final assault on Diriyah, the capital of the state. After a months-long siege, Abdullah bin Saud surrendered on September 9, 1818, and Diriyah was largely destroyed, ending the First Saudi State. The collapse showed that the Ottoman Empire (working through Egypt) could still project decisive military power into central Arabia when fully mobilized.
First Saudi State (Emirate of Diriyah) (1727–1818)