In March 1919, the colonial government passed the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (the “Rowlatt Act”), extending wartime-style powers such as detention without trial. Many Indian leaders argued it violated basic civil liberties and had been pushed through despite strong Indian opposition in the Imperial Legislative Council. The law set off a wave of protest that quickly became a nationwide political crisis.
On April 6, 1919, Mahatma Gandhi called for a countrywide hartal (a shutdown strike) with fasting and prayer as a nonviolent protest against the Rowlatt Act. The widespread response showed the growing ability of nationalists to mobilize people across regions and social groups. The protest also raised colonial fears of disorder and “sedition.”
In early April 1919, tensions in Amritsar intensified after the arrest and removal of local leaders, helping trigger protests and clashes. Colonial officials brought in Brigadier General Reginald Dyer with orders to restore control. These events formed the immediate background to the later mass shooting at Jallianwala Bagh.
On April 13, 1919, troops under Brigadier General Reginald Dyer fired on a large, unarmed crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, killing hundreds and wounding many more. The shootings became a turning point, severely damaging trust in British rule and pushing Indian politics toward mass, anti-colonial mobilization. The massacre was followed by harsh crackdowns in Punjab.
After the massacre, authorities enforced martial law in Punjab and introduced humiliating punishments as part of the repressive response. One of the most infamous measures was Dyer’s “Crawling Order,” which forced Indians to crawl along a street where a British missionary had been attacked. These actions deepened outrage and strengthened arguments that the Raj relied on coercion rather than consent.
Rabindranath Tagore, one of India’s most prominent writers, renounced his British knighthood in protest against the Punjab repression following Jallianwala Bagh. His public rejection of imperial honors helped signal that criticism of British rule had spread far beyond political activists. It also became a lasting symbol of moral condemnation of colonial violence.
In late 1919, the British government appointed the Disorders Inquiry Committee, commonly called the Hunter Commission, to investigate the Punjab disturbances and the Amritsar shooting. The inquiry collected testimony and became a major public forum for debating the meaning of “order” and “rights” under colonial rule. Its work shaped later political arguments on both sides, even though it did not satisfy Indian demands for justice.
After investigations and political debate in Britain and India, Reginald Dyer was ultimately relieved of his command, reflecting official disapproval of key aspects of his actions. However, the lack of criminal punishment and continuing defense of Dyer by some supporters kept the issue politically explosive. The episode reinforced Indian claims that colonial accountability mechanisms were inadequate.
In August 1920, Gandhi returned honors he had earlier received from the British government, including the Kaiser-i-Hind Medal. He framed the act as a response to wrongs in Punjab and to wider colonial policies he viewed as unjust. The gesture helped move protest from petitions toward organized noncooperation with the colonial state.
In September–December 1920, the Indian National Congress endorsed Gandhi’s noncooperation strategy, linking it to demands for redress in Punjab and other political grievances. The program emphasized boycotts of British institutions and goods and encouraged building Indian-run alternatives. This broadened the anti-colonial struggle into a mass movement with sustained participation.
On February 4, 1922, protesters in Chauri Chaura clashed with police and burned a police station, killing officers inside. Gandhi viewed the incident as proof that the movement risked turning violent and soon halted the nationwide noncooperation campaign. The event marked a major turning point from rapid mass escalation to a period of retrenchment and reassessment.
On February 12, 1922, Gandhi formally withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement at the national level. The decision disappointed some supporters but reflected his insistence that mass protest must remain nonviolent to be legitimate and effective. Ending the campaign also made it easier for colonial authorities to reassert control through arrests and prosecutions.
In March 1922, the Rowlatt Act was repealed, ending the specific emergency-law framework that had helped ignite the 1919 confrontation. By then, however, the political damage was lasting: Jallianwala Bagh and the Punjab repression had already reshaped nationalist strategy and public opinion. Repeal marked a clear endpoint to the 1919–1922 cycle of repression, inquiry, and mass resistance that began with the Act’s passage.
On March 10, 1922, British authorities arrested Gandhi on sedition charges tied to his writings in Young India. The arrest signaled a shift from managing protests to prosecuting top leaders after the movement’s suspension. It also became a landmark case in debates over political speech and colonial law.
Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, and the repressive response (1919-1922)