The Spanish Crown issued the Capitulation of Toledo, a royal contract granting Francisco Pizarro authority to conquer and govern a new jurisdiction called “New Castile.” It set the legal framework for the invasion by defining privileges, offices, and the territory Pizarro could claim for Spain.
Pizarro’s small force ambushed the Inca ruler Atahualpa in Cajamarca and captured him. This removal of the top leader destabilized Inca command and gave the Spanish leverage over the empire through ransom demands and political pressure.
In 1533, the Spanish selected the young prince Manco Inca Yupanqui to rule in Cusco as a puppet (a leader expected to follow Spanish orders). This arrangement aimed to give the conquest an appearance of continuity while Spanish forces took over Inca palaces, estates, and administration.
After receiving a large ransom in gold and silver, the Spanish executed Atahualpa. His death deepened the leadership crisis created by the earlier civil war and made it easier for the conquistadors to install rulers who depended on Spanish support.
As Pizarro advanced toward the imperial capital, Spanish troops and their Indigenous allies fought Inca forces loyal to generals resisting the takeover. Victories in this phase cleared the way for Spanish entry into Cusco and the start of systematic looting and occupation of key religious and political sites.
Pizarro founded Lima (originally called the “City of Kings”) on the coast, improving Spanish access to shipping and reinforcements. This helped Spain consolidate control by linking Andean conquests to Pacific trade routes and colonial government institutions.
Manco Inca broke with the Spanish and began a large rebellion, starting with an attempt to retake Cusco. The long siege showed that the conquest was not secure and forced the Spanish to rely heavily on fortifications, cavalry, firearms, and Indigenous allies.
In early 1537, Manco Inca defeated a Spanish expedition at Ollantaytambo, using terrain and defenses in the Sacred Valley. Although the Spanish still held Cusco, this battle helped push the center of Inca resistance toward the remote Vilcabamba region.
After withdrawing from the highlands, Manco Inca established an independent Inca-held state centered on Vilcabamba. This “Neo-Inca State” kept Inca political authority alive for decades through raids, diplomacy, and control of difficult jungle-and-mountain terrain.
Spanish rivalries turned into open warfare, culminating in Diego de Almagro’s defeat and execution in 1538. These civil conflicts weakened coordination among Spaniards and shaped later colonial administration, even as pressure on Inca resistance continued.
Pizarro was killed in Lima by Spanish rivals linked to the Almagrist faction. His death highlighted deep instability among the conquerors and accelerated the Crown’s push for stronger royal control over Peru.
Manco Inca’s successor Sayri Túpac negotiated with Spanish authorities and left Vilcabamba, formally renouncing his claim to the Inca Empire in exchange for a pardon, baptism, and estates. This reduced immediate military pressure but did not end the Neo-Inca State, which continued under other rulers.
Viceroy Francisco de Toledo used the killing of Spanish envoys and rising tensions after leadership changes in Vilcabamba as justification to end Inca independence by force. The decision marked a shift from intermittent negotiation to a final, organized conquest campaign.
Spanish troops entered Vilcabamba and found it abandoned after the Inca leadership fled. The fall of the capital effectively ended the Neo-Inca State as a functioning independent government, even though the last ruler had not yet been captured.
The Spanish captured Túpac Amaru, the last Neo-Inca ruler, and executed him in Cusco. His death removed the final widely recognized Inca sovereign and became a lasting symbol of the end of organized Inca political independence.
Conquest and consolidation of the Inca Empire (1532–1572)