Uzun Hasan consolidated the Aq Qoyunlu (Ak Koyunlu) confederation and built a short-lived empire that included eastern Anatolia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iraq, and Iran. This expansion brought Aq Qoyunlu rule into direct contact with the growing Ottoman state, setting up a struggle for control of eastern Anatolia’s routes, fortresses, and frontier loyalties.
The Ottoman army under Mehmed II defeated Uzun Hasan at the Battle of Otlukbeli near Erzincan. The victory reduced Aq Qoyunlu ability to challenge the Ottomans in eastern Anatolia and signaled that Ottoman military power could be projected deep into the east when needed.
After the Aq Qoyunlu period, the Safavids emerged as a powerful dynasty in Iran with a distinct political and religious identity. Their rise created a new, long-term Ottoman rival to the east, and eastern Anatolia became a key border zone where influence could shift through war, diplomacy, and local alliances.
Sultan Selim I defeated Shah Ismail I at the Battle of Chaldiran, using disciplined infantry and artillery to overcome Safavid cavalry tactics. The Ottoman victory opened the way for Ottoman control in parts of eastern Anatolia and helped establish a durable frontier zone between the two empires.
After Chaldiran, the Ottoman army advanced into northwest Iran and entered Tabriz, the Safavid capital at the time. Even though this occupation was not permanent, it demonstrated how quickly the war could spill across the eastern Anatolian frontier into Iran, raising the stakes for both sides.
From 1532, the Ottomans and Safavids fought a long war across eastern Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia. The conflict mixed strategic goals (fortresses, supply routes, and tax bases) with efforts to secure loyalty in contested frontier societies.
The Peace of Amasya ended the 1532–1555 war and established a recognized Ottoman–Safavid boundary, including arrangements affecting Armenia and Georgia and rules for travel by pilgrims. It brought about roughly two decades of relative stability, even though the underlying rivalry remained.
In 1578, fighting restarted during a period of Safavid weakness, and Ottoman campaigns targeted the Caucasus and northwest Iranian territories. The renewed war showed that the Amasya settlement could be overturned when one side saw an opportunity to gain ground.
The 1590 Treaty of Constantinople (also called the Peace of Istanbul) ended the 1578–1590 war and forced the Safavids to accept large Ottoman territorial gains in the Caucasus and northwest Iran. The harsh terms were significant but unstable, because Safavid recovery under Shah Abbas I soon changed the balance again.
In 1603, Shah Abbas I launched a counteroffensive and recaptured Tabriz, signaling a Safavid return as a strong military power. This shift reignited intense fighting over eastern Anatolia’s approaches and over key cities and passes connecting Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Iran.
The 1612 Treaty of Nasuh Pasha ended the war of 1603–1612 and largely reset borders to the earlier Amasya line, requiring an annual silk tribute from the Safavids. Disputes over these terms helped trigger further conflict, showing how economic obligations and frontier control were linked.
After renewed fighting in 1616–1618, the Treaty of Serav re-established peace between the two empires. The settlement kept the basic pattern of negotiated frontiers but did not remove the deeper strategic contest over Iraq, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia’s borderlands.
In the next major round of conflict, Safavid forces captured Baghdad in January 1624, turning the struggle toward Mesopotamia as well as the eastern Anatolian frontier. Control of Baghdad mattered for taxes, trade routes, and religious-political legitimacy, making the war harder to end.
Sultan Murad IV led a major campaign that culminated in the successful Ottoman siege and recapture of Baghdad in late 1638. The recapture strengthened the Ottoman position in Iraq and created the military conditions for a final peace settlement with the Safavids.
The Treaty of Zuhab (Qasr-e Shirin) ended the 1623–1639 war and confirmed a long-lasting Ottoman–Safavid boundary, including Ottoman control over Iraq. This agreement closed a long cycle of repeated frontier wars and helped stabilize the eastern Anatolian border as a more permanent imperial dividing line.
Ottoman–Safavid and Aq Qoyunlu Conflicts in Eastern Anatolia (1467–1639)