Ming loyalist commander Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) landed in southwestern Taiwan to break Dutch control and create a base against the Qing. His move shifted Taiwan into the center of the Ming–Qing struggle and set the stage for a new maritime regime on the island.
After a months-long siege, the Dutch East India Company surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga. This ended roughly four decades of Dutch rule in Taiwan and opened the way for a Ming-loyalist state to govern the island.
Koxinga and his successors organized Taiwan as the Kingdom of Tungning, a Ming-loyalist regime with its capital around present-day Tainan. The kingdom became a militarized maritime base that contested Qing control on the nearby Chinese coast.
Under Koxinga’s son Zheng Jing, major institutions were built in the capital area, including what later became the Grand Matsu Temple in Tainan. The site later held an important Qing victory stele, linking it to the conquest and annexation that followed.
A major uprising by powerful former Ming generals broke out in southern China, forcing the Qing to concentrate on internal war for years. During the revolt, the Zheng regime in Taiwan acted as an additional anti-Qing force, tying Taiwan’s future to the outcome of the wider civil conflict.
Zheng Jing’s death triggered a brief and violent struggle over leadership in the Kingdom of Tungning. The instability weakened the regime just as the Qing were preparing a major amphibious campaign.
After a short-lived regency, Zheng Keshuang took power as the last ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning. His reign coincided with growing Qing pressure and ended with surrender after the loss of the Penghu Islands.
The Qing defeated the last major rebel forces, reasserting control over the southern mainland. With the civil war ending in 1681, the Kangxi court could redirect resources to eliminating the remaining stronghold of Ming loyalism in Taiwan.
Qing admiral Shi Lang led a large invasion force from the Fujian coast toward the Penghu Islands, the strategic gateway to Taiwan. The expedition represented the Qing decision to end Zheng maritime resistance by force rather than negotiation.
In a decisive naval battle, Shi Lang defeated Tungning forces around the Penghu (Pescadores) Islands. Losing Penghu cut off the Zheng regime’s defenses and supply lines, making continued resistance on Taiwan difficult.
After the defeat at sea, Tungning leaders debated whether to continue fighting. Zheng Keshuang ultimately offered surrender, ending the Zheng state’s independent rule in principle and opening the way for Qing occupation and administration.
Shi Lang reached Taiwan and formally received the capitulation of Zheng Keshuang and key commanders. This marked the military conclusion of the Qing conquest and the defeat of the Kingdom of Tungning as a governing power.
The Kangxi government incorporated Taiwan into the Qing administrative system by establishing Taiwan Prefecture under Fujian Province. This step turned a conquered territory into a governed one, with counties and officials assigned under Qing rules.
Shi Lang erected a “Pacification of Taiwan” stele (now associated with Tainan’s Grand Mazu Temple) to record the campaign and its aftermath. As a public monument, it helped present Qing rule as legitimate and permanent, reinforcing the annexation’s political message.
Defeat of the Kingdom of Tungning and Qing annexation of Taiwan (1683)