The Armistice of Mudanya ended the immediate military phase of the Greco-Turkish conflict and set terms for Greek withdrawal from Eastern Thrace. The agreement accelerated civilian flight and created a large refugee problem even before a formal peace treaty was signed. This crisis shaped the later decision to use a compulsory population exchange as a political solution.
Greece accepted the Mudanya terms shortly after the armistice was signed, locking in the requirement to evacuate Eastern Thrace. The combination of military defeat and territorial change pushed many people to move in fear of reprisals or insecurity. These movements foreshadowed the later, legally mandated transfers.
Greece and Turkey signed the Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations in Lausanne. It created a compulsory exchange defined mainly by religion: Greek Orthodox people in Turkey and Muslims in Greece. The convention also set key exceptions, including the Greek inhabitants of Constantinople (Istanbul) and Muslims in Western Thrace.
Under Article 1 of the convention, the compulsory exchange was set to take place “as from” 1 May 1923. This date mattered because it turned a wartime refugee emergency into an organized state policy with legal force. It also framed later disputes about who was included, who was exempt, and what happened to abandoned property.
The Treaty of Lausanne was signed in Lausanne, providing the international peace settlement that recognized the boundaries of modern Turkey. The population exchange convention was tied to this wider settlement and became part of the new regional order. With borders and sovereignty questions addressed, both governments pushed to complete transfers and resettlement.
Turkey ratified the population exchange convention, moving it from a signed agreement toward active implementation. Ratification strengthened the authority of the exchange rules and the institutions created to run them. It also signaled that return migration without permission would not be allowed for those covered by the exchange.
Greece ratified the population exchange convention soon after Turkey, confirming its commitment to the compulsory transfers. This was a turning point for Greek domestic policy, because it meant planning for mass reception, housing, and employment for refugees. The ratifications helped push emergency relief toward longer-term resettlement programs.
In September 1923, the Refugee Settlement Commission was founded in Geneva with participation by Greek and foreign representatives, on a League of Nations initiative following a Greek request. The Commission’s purpose was to organize refugee relief and rehabilitation, especially settlement in rural and urban areas. This marked a shift from ad hoc aid to a structured, internationally backed resettlement system.
Through 1924, Greece and the Refugee Settlement Commission intensified settlement efforts, using ceded land and properties left behind in the exchange. Resettlement was especially challenging in cities, where jobs and housing were scarce compared with rural land allocations. These practical pressures influenced Greek politics and the shape of new neighborhoods and villages.
The Treaty of Lausanne became effective in August 1924 after ratifications were deposited, reinforcing the postwar legal framework in which the exchange took place. This mattered because it strengthened the broader peace settlement that underpinned border recognition and minority rules. By then, population transfers and property disputes were already deeply affecting both societies.
The population exchange convention was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series, reflecting its status as a formally recorded international agreement. This step supported international visibility and legitimacy, even as implementation remained contentious on the ground. Registration also connected later legal and administrative disputes to international institutions.
By 1925, conflicts between the Greek state and the Refugee Settlement Commission over responsibilities and control escalated, and Commission members were brought to trial. The episode showed how difficult it was to manage a massive resettlement effort with mixed domestic and international authority. Even so, the resettlement machinery created during 1923–1925 left a lasting mark on Greek demographics and settlement patterns.
Greek–Turkish population exchange and refugee resettlement (1923–1925)