By mid-1996, about 1.1 million Rwandan refugees were living in camps around Goma, Bukavu, and Uvira in what was then Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, DRC). These camps became a major pressure point in the region, mixing civilian displacement with security concerns and helping set the stage for later mass movements during the Congo wars.
When the First Congo War began in late 1996, armed attacks targeted refugee camps in eastern Zaire and pushed people to flee. Large numbers returned to Rwanda, while others moved deeper into Congo’s interior, where access for aid groups was difficult and mortality rose. This dispersion shaped refugee routes and risks that continued into the Second Congo War period.
In the final weeks of 1996, an estimated 600,000–700,000 Rwandan refugees returned to Rwanda. At the same time, at least 200,000 moved in the opposite direction, traveling into remote forest areas inside Congo/Zaire. Many were hard to locate and assist, creating a long-running humanitarian emergency linked to the wars’ violence and insecurity.
After the 1996 conflict in the DRC, about 100,000 people entered Tanzania’s Kigoma region, and refugee management became a major cross-border issue. Many later returned to the DRC in early 1998, but planners anticipated renewed inflows as insecurity persisted. These movements show how DRC fighting quickly created refugee waves into nearby states.
By early 1997, up to 200,000 Rwandan and Burundian refugees clustered in makeshift sites such as Tingi-Tingi and Amisi in eastern Zaire. As fighting advanced, these groups were repeatedly dispersed, and the fate of many people became uncertain. This period deepened regional displacement patterns that later overlapped with Second Congo War violence.
On 1998-08-02, the Second Congo War began after a rebellion in eastern DRC that drew in regional powers and expanded rapidly. As front lines shifted and armed groups multiplied, civilians again fled within the DRC and across borders. The war’s start marked a new phase of refugee-producing conflict in the Great Lakes region.
UNHCR reported that almost half of the roughly 100,000 people who had fled from the DRC to Tanzania in 1996 later returned in early 1998, but the August 1998 war reversed this trend. Contingency planning expanded as cross-border movement risk increased again. This pivot illustrates how quickly refugee flows followed changes in the conflict.
On 1999-07-10, several states signed the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement to try to halt the war and create a framework for disengagement and a UN role. Although fighting continued in many areas, the agreement became a key reference point for later peace operations. For refugees and internally displaced people, it was an early attempt to create conditions for safer movement and return.
On 1999-11-30, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1279, creating MONUC (a UN mission) to help implement the Lusaka framework and observe the ceasefire. The mission’s mandate reflected concern about the deteriorating humanitarian situation and ongoing violations. MONUC’s deployment became part of the international response alongside major refugee and displacement crises.
By 2002, UNHCR described Tanzania as hosting nearly 540,000 refugees, including large numbers from Burundi and the DRC. These long-running refugee situations were tied to overlapping conflicts in the Great Lakes region, including the Second Congo War. Strain on host communities and camp capacity influenced policies and the prospects for safe return.
On 2002-07-30, the DRC and Rwanda signed the Pretoria Agreement, connecting the planned withdrawal of Rwandan forces with steps to disarm and repatriate armed groups based in the DRC. The deal reflected how refugee and militia issues were intertwined: civilian protection and safe return were harder when armed actors operated in and around displaced populations. It was a major diplomatic step toward reducing cross-border drivers of displacement.
On 2002-12-17, Congolese parties signed the Global and Inclusive Agreement on Transition (often linked to the Inter-Congolese Dialogue process) in Pretoria. The agreement aimed to end major nationwide fighting by creating a power-sharing transition and setting steps toward reunification and elections. For refugees, it was important because large-scale returns typically depend on political settlements and improved security conditions.
On 2003-04-02, the UN Secretary-General’s message at Sun City marked formal endorsement of the All-inclusive Agreement on the Transition along with related security and constitutional texts. This endorsement signaled growing international backing for a political roadmap after years of conflict. Such steps mattered for refugee flows because they can improve coordination for returns, reintegration, and protection efforts.
In mid-2003, the Transitional Government began operating, and the Second Congo War is commonly described as officially ending on 2003-07-18. The new transition framework aimed to reunify institutions and reduce large-scale interstate fighting, even though violence continued in parts of eastern DRC. This outcome marked a shift from full-scale regional war toward a fragile postwar period, shaping refugee return possibilities and new displacement risks.
Refugee flows from the Second Congo War (1996–2003)